A scientist ahead of his time
The exhibition, along with the monographic catalogue dedicated to Dr Sima Trojanović, is a chance to remind ourselves of an exceptional contribution of one of the most significant Serbian ethnologists and the founder of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade. As a pioneer of ethnology in Serbia, Trojanović managed to, despite numerous obstacles, lay the foundation for scientific research of folk traditions and customs. His rich education, acquired at prestigious European universities, and his wide field of interest, from anthropology to folk medicine, enabled him to view the Serbian cultural heritage from different perspectives and present it to both the domestic and foreign public. Through his works and museological efforts, Trojanović discovered the depth and wealth of Serbian customs, beliefs, and traditional ceremonies, giving them scientific foundation and universal significance. Not only does this exhibition display his scientific contribution but also the life of a man whose devotion to the preservation of national identity left a permanent mark on Serbian culture and science. The catalogue accompanying the exhibition features the most significant moments from the life and work of Dr Sima Trojanovic in a chronological order, with illustrations and displays of original documents, photographs, and museum artifacts. We hope that this publication will contribute to a better overall comprehension of Trojanović’s scientific work and inspire future generations of ethnologists and museologists to follow his example of dedication and thoroughness in research.
The University Library holds written traces of his knowledge and abilities, and with this exhibition, it aims to draw attention to that segment of its opulent collection. The featured material is partly from the Old and Rare Books Department of the University Library ’Svetozar Markovic,’ particularly from the legacies of Geodon Dunđerski, Joca Vujić, Slobodan J. Jovanović, Živojin Simić, Stojan Novaković, Dr Aleksandar Belić, and Dr Vojislav M. Jovanović.
The catalogue contains more than 140 items.
The catalogue is divided into three segments. The first part includes the author’s text by the curators of the exhibition, who, in main points, introduce us to the life and work of a renowned Serbian scholar. The second part is dedicated to the selected quotes from publications available in the Searchable Digital Library of the University Library ‘Svetozar Marković,’ dominated by chunks from Trojanović’s texts published in Srpski književni glasnik, Delo, Otadžbina, and other periodicals. The third part contains an extensive bibliography comprised of Dr Sima Trojanović’s works, as well as works about Sima Trojanović.
The bibliography items are arranged in ISBD format by the year of publication.
Dr Sima Trojanovic – Scientist, Ethnologist, and First Director of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade
Dr Sima Trojanovic (1862–1935) was a Serbian scientist, member of the Serbian Royal Academy, ethnologist, anthropologist, teacher, professor, and the first director of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade. He was one of the first scientists to study Serbian ethnology. As a pioneer in this field of study, he made a significant contribution to the development of this scientific discipline and the institutionalization of ethnographic research in Serbia. His work, which, among other things, included gathering, studying, and preserving the ethnographic materials, had a sizeable impact on the development of science in Serbia and the conservation of Serbian cultural heritage. He was a man of broad education and a versatile personality, and his academic and pedagogical activities left an immense mark on Serbian science and culture.
Roots and education
Dr Simeon Sima Trojanović was born into a merchant family in Šabac. According to Drobnjaković (1936), his father Matija was born in Bitolj, and his mother, Marija, in Šašinci in Srem. In literature, 1862 is referred to as his year of birth, but the archival documents indicate that he was born in 1860 (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002). As a merchant, Matija Trojanovic settled in Šabac, where Sima acquired his primary education. He then continued his education in Vinkovci. First, he finished grammar school in Šabac and later in Belgrade. He graduated in Switzerland, at Bern, which was an amazing feat for a young Serb during that time. He continued his higher education at prestigious universities in Zurich, Würzburg, and Heidelberg, which were important centers of scientific thought in Europe at that time (Antonić and Bižić-Omčikus, 2002).
He particularly took an interest in natural sciences, especially biology and anthropology, branches that were gaining more scientific and academic notice at that period. He obtained his doctorate in biological sciences at the University of Heidelberg, one of the oldest and most prominent universities in Germany, on August 4, 1885. He was then awarded a Doctor of Philosophy and a Master of Arts (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002).
First Professional Challenges – Rejection and Persistence
Having returned to Serbia, Sima Trojanović faced his first challenges in his professional life. Despite having a prestigious diploma and prominent education, he did not find employment immediately. First, he wrote to the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs requesting a teacher’s job at a secondary school; however, his request was rejected on that occasion.
Not wanting to give up on his educational career, he searched for an occupation in other establishments. One of his attempts at finding a job was at Josif Pančić’s Botanical Garden, but he did not receive the opportunity he expected there either. Without waiting or wasting time, he soon wrote to the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs again, applying for a position as a teacher of German language, natural sciences and as a drawing teacher (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002).
Educational Career and the Beginning of Ethnographic Work
Trojanović received his first teaching position in 1886 at the Lower Grammar School in Čačak as a German language teacher. He passed the teaching exam in 1891, after which he taught in several towns: Čačak, Loznica, and Belgrade. During his teaching vocation, he taught several subjects such as Serbian and German languages, botany, zoology, geography, chemistry, and anatomy, which speaks volumes of his erudite spirit.
A particularly significant moment and a turning point in his career occurred during his post in Loznica. At that time, he taught Serbian and German languages and held the position of deputy director. During his time in Loznica, he tried to engage in archeology, but circumstance prevented him from doing so. In 1892, in a letter from Minister Andre Nikolić, he was informed to refrain from examining prehistoric cemeteries. Due to such circumstances, he redirected his interest towards ethnography. He was further encouraged on that path by the support of Stojan Novaković, with whom Trojanović kept constant contact. This would later transpire to be a key moment in his scientific development, as ethnography would become his greatest passion and the field where he would make his most significant contribution (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002).
In 1893, by decree of His Majesty Aleksandar the First, King of Serbia, he was appointed director of the Lower Grammar School in Loznica. The following year, he moved to Belgrade and obtained new employment at the Third Belgrade Grammar School. After that, in 1898, he went to study ethnology and physical anthropology for two years in Munich, Prague, and Vienna.
The Role in Establishing the Ethnographic Museum
„The first twenty years of the Ethnographic Museum’s endeavors are associated with the name of Dr Sima Trojanović. He paved the way that was followed for an entire century“ (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002). The pinnacle of Trojanović’s work in ethnography was probably his role in the establishment of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade at the beginning of the twentieth century. The museum’s collections expanded thoroughly, and it became one of the most noteworthy scientific and cultural institutions in Serbia. The artifacts collected over the years were allocated to several locations, and most were allotted in the house of Stevča Mihailović (1804-1888), a celebrated Serbian politician, supporter of the Obrenović dynasty, and the prime minister during the Serbian-Turkish wars. As a dedicated patriot and a man devoted to national interests, he bequeathed his house to the Serbian people in his will so that a museum could be established there. Owing to his legacy, the Ethnographic Museum was founded in 1902 in Belgrade.
The Ethnographic Museum was officially opened on September 7, 1904 (according to the old calendar) in the presence of the king. The museum was further developed under Trojanović’s management, who traveled extensively across Serbia and beyond, collecting artifacts for exhibitions and museum displays. The collections were enriched with each passing year: local industry, old weapons, kilims, haberdashery, cords, suits, knitted fabrics, woolen fabrics, folk handicrafts, and many others. Since 1906, the museum has also started using its own seal.
Under his management, the museum held many exhibitions, both in Serbia and abroad, presenting the Serbian cultural heritage in an excellent light. Moreover, the museum organized Serbia’s participation in many international exhibitions: ‘Exhibition of Historical and Modern Costumes and Objects Related to Them’ in St. Petersburg (Serbia brought home a gold medal), ‘Industrial Exhibition’ in Belgium, ‘Balkan Exhibition’ in London, ‘Serbian Woman’ in Prague, and many others.
An especially captivating exhibit, ‘Serbian Woman,’ was held at the initiative of Zorka Hovorkova, who was the president of the Czech Women Society in Prague at that time. The exhibition had ‘only one particular cultural task: to display what a Serbian woman does and how she can do it’ (Trojanović, 1910). According to Sima Trojanović, the exhibition was incredibly vivid, vibrant, highly alluring, and original. The exhibit featured the shroud of the martyr Prince Lazar, embroidered on red silk by the nun Jefimija, who, before taking her vows, was the wife of Despot Uglješa, brother of King Vukašin. In addition, on display were numerous old church embroideries, fabrics of lavish colors and motifs, with embellished birds, peacocks, and roosters; towels for a groomsman and funeral crosses, shirts and kilims. There were modern pieces such as a wealthy Belgrade woman with a pearl tepeluk[1] and a baresh[2], and next to her a Belgrade village woman and a child in a cradle, and Kosovo girl. The exhibition was formally opened on Easter, and there was a vast interest in it.
World War I – Degradation and Restoration of Museum Collections
During World War I, many scientists, artists, and intellectuals ended up in concentration camps, or in exile. The war also brought major losses to the Ethnographic Museum. The museum was looted, and a large part of the collections was destroyed and lost. The museum’s building was damaged, and a third of the artifacts went missing then (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002).
Trojanović remained in Serbia during the war and is mentioned as a prisoner in the Hungarian camp in Nežider in 1917. The museum was under the management of Ivan Kovačević, an Austro-Hungarian major, during the war.
At the end of 1918, Sima Trojanoić was affiliated with the Central Committee of the International Commission for Investigating Violation of the Hague Convention. At that moment, he was reassigned as the museum director. He dedicated himself to the museum’s restoration, working alongside Nikola Zega on assembling and restoring the scattered collections. His first trip concerning the collection’s renewal ensued in 1920 to the Požarevac district and then to Vojvodina.
Serbian Royal Academy and Professorship at the Faculty in Skopje
In 1921, Dr Jovan Cvijić and Ljubomir S.Trojanović submitted a proposal to the Serbian Royal Academy for Dr Sima Trojanović to become its corresponding member. At the main session of the Academy, on February 19 the same year, the decision was reached for him to be admitted and to continue to contribute to its endeavors through his work and advocacy. At the session of the Faculty of Philosophy University of Belgrade Council, he was elected professor of ethnography on April 16. In the middle of the same year, by decree of King Aleksandar, he was officially appointed full professor of ethnography at the Faculty of Philosophy in Skopje, where he later became the dean. Nikola Zega then continued to manage the Ethnographic Museum at the proposal of the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Antonić & Bižić-Omčikus, 2002).
Later Years and Legacy
Sima Trojanovic formally, but not essentially, retired in 1925. He continued carrying out his previous employments in investigating committees, school inspections, wrote papers, and was particularly active in the Serbian Royal Academy. Two days before his death, he published his last work: ’Speech Without Words.’ He died in 1935 and was buried at the New Cemetery in Belgrade.
Museological Activity and Study of Folk Traditions
Sima Trojanović, one of the most prominent Serbian ethnologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, laid the foundations for the scientific study of folk culture, and his contributions to the museology were of significant importance. Through his field research and academic work, he established the basis for museology and the contemporary study of the Serbian cultural heritage.
As one of the pioneers to engage in museological research, Trojanović arranged numerous exhibits demonstrating the richness of Serbian folk tradition, customs, and beliefs. His work focused on preserving the cultural heritage and emphasizing the museum’s importance as an institution that not only maintains but also explores folk tradition. Many aspects of Serbian culture, which are today an invaluable source for research, were written down in works that are still essential sources for comprehending the customs and lifestyles of the Serbian people.
Apart from establishing the Ethnographic Museum, Trojanović set fundamental rules for cataloguing and systematic description of museum collections as well. He introduced the principle of precise and appropriate listing and detailed description of each field being studied or an artifact incorporated in a collection, photographed or documented in any other way. He advocated for cooperation with related institutions, exhibit exchange, and the arrangement of joint exhibitions, thereby improving the museological practice. Furthermore, he initiated the introduction of a museum ‘book of impressions,’ enabling visitors to share their knowledge, express their opinions, and contribute to a profound understanding of cultural heritage.
In addition to his work on expanding museum collections and on activities of the Ethnographic Museum, Sima Trojanović also showcased immense creativity and a desire for new museums to be established, holding it imperative for the spiritual growth of the Serbian people. Thus, various notes with his ideas for new exhibitions and museums have been preserved, including a zoo, an open-air museum, a popular museum, etc.
Selected Works of Sima Trojanović
Trojanović’s work titled Old Slavic Burial Ritual (1901) explores customs related to death and funerals. It points out the deep respect toward the deceased in Serbian folk tradition and emphasizes the similarities with other Slavic and Balkan people. According to Trojanović, Serbs nurture a gentle streak of reverence for the deceased, which can be inferred from burial customs. He recorded many of these customs, such as the beheading of a rooster when somebody from the household dies, slaughtering hens at the doorstep, measuring the deceased with a red thread that is later buried in the house for good fortune, following the deceased in the funeral procession with cattle or a horse, and numerous others.
Trojanović also researched how pagan cults and customs were conveyed into Christian holidays. Slava is an important day for Serbs, and a lot of saints are celebrated. However, Christmas is the only holiday that all Serbs celebrate on the same day. In his work Christmas (1905), he analyzes this holiday by examining how ancient solar cults, connected to paganism, were incorporated into Christmas celebrations. ‘All customs (among Serbs), without exception, breathe the living breath of undisturbed paganism on Christmas Day’ (Trojanović, 1905).
In his work Fire in the Rites and Life of Serbian People, Sima explores the significance of fire as one of the most notable elements in Serbian folk belief, rites, and mythology. He highlights the fact that fire is not only a means of illumination and source of warmth but rather has a deeply rooted symbolic and ritual role. Whether it is used in ceremonies connected to the life cycle – birth, marriage, death – or in magical practices and protective rituals, fire represents a formidable spiritual and cultural motif.
The ritual of ‘living fire’ is a distinct focus in his research, which was widespread among Serbs as a means of protection against ailment and misfortune. Trojanović described in detail how this fire was obtained in a specific manner – rubbing wood against wood – which gave additional sacred value to the entire process. However, his analysis did not stop at accumulating ethnographic materials, but it also encompassed broader comparisons with akin beliefs of other Slavic and Indo-European people, thereby laying groundwork for further anthropological research.
In the words of Žarko Trebješanin, Trojanović’s approach was comprehensive and based on detailed fieldwork, which makes his work one of the most important in Serbian ethnological tradition. This Trojanović’s work rightly occupies an affirmed spot in Serbian scientific literature, alongside works by Jovan Cvijić, Veselin Čajkanović, and Tihomir Đorđević, proving that Serbian ethnology has a worthy legacy that can contribute to the wider planetary scientific scene.
The book Tradition of the Serbian People by Sima Trojanović is an extensive research of Serbian folk tradition. This work, which enables profound insight into the underlying elements of folk culture, is aimed at perceiving nonverbal and verbal forms of communication in Serbian folk poetry and oral tradition. In his work, Trojanović analyzes different aspects of nonverbal communication, which were often pivotal in conveying complex emotions and meanings. He stresses that nonverbal gestures and behaviors – such as silence, gaze, body gestures, and specific customs – can sometimes be more significant than words themselves. In folk poetry, this nonverbal communication is not only a subsidiary element but also a crucial solution to understanding the inner conflicts and interpersonal relationships. An example of this is a scene in which love and suffering are expressed without the use of words, but only through gestures that rather speak volumes than it could be said verbally (Trojanović, 2023).
This work also looks into the phenomenon of folk jargons and specific languages used by various social and craft groups. These ‘secret’ languages were crucial for intersocietal communication, and, at the same time, they provided a kind of safeguard against the outside world. Trojanović emphasizes that, in time, these jargons became depleted, which largely resulted in the deprivation of social codes and meanings. His research also illuminates how changes in social structures and technological innovations impacted the steady extinction of these forms of discourse, which exposed folk rites and traditions to oblivion (Trojanović, 2023).
Trojanović’s study does not only refer to the structures of folk customs but also to processes that impacted the transformation of tradition. In his work, it is underlined that customs, although a noteworthy segment of folk culture, are simplified and adapted to contemporary requirements of the society over time. This depletion of significance and the role of certain customs ultimately lead to their reduction or, in some instances, to complete disappearance. Such processes are deemed unavoidable, but Trojanović, along with other researchers of folk tradition, emphasizes the importance of saving fragments of these traditions and their roots, which are the ‘spiritual capital’ of people and the foundation of their identity. In his research (1925-1926) on the secret languages of craftsmen and social groups in the Balkans, he provides priceless insight into the modes of communication that developed out of practical necessities. He notes that various craftsmanship groups, such as the masons from Osat and Sirinić, potters from Priština, and beggars from Srem, used specific dialects to communicate between themselves so as not to be understood by those around them.
In his work Main Serbian Sacrificial Rites, Sima Trojanović explores and analyzes the complex structure of Serbian sacrificial rites, deeply embedded in folk belief and customs. Not only does Trojanović stress the distinctive types of sacrificial rites, but he also engages with their spiritual and cultural symbolism, taking into account how these rites served as means of maintaining connection with the divine and the natural world. Through historical context, the author considers how sacrificial customs developed and changed over time, as well as their importance in marking vital life events, such as birth, marriage, and death (Trojanović, 1982). This book is the pivotal contribution to understanding how customs and rituals can reflect deep spiritual and cultural values of a society.
Another important book by Sima Trojanović is the Old Serbian Dishes and Beverages, in which the author investigates the traditional Serbian cuisine through a historical and ethnographic context. The book considers the origins and uses of different dishes and beverages that were part of everyday life, but also a considerable element of Serbian customs and rituals. Trojanović emphasizes the specific ingredients and preparation methods that remained in Serbian households, including the connection between these dishes and religious ceremonies. The author explores how these culinary elements were connected to seasons, celebration of holidays, and important social event (Trojanović, 1983). The book also deals with the cultural meaning of the dishes and beverages themselves, which, same as the sacrificial customs, reflected the way of life, beliefs, and history of the people.
Sima Trojanović and his Study of Psychophysical Expression of the Serbian People
In his cardinal work Psychophysical Expression of the Serbian People Predominantly Without Words, Sima Trojanović presents an important study of specific psychophysical expression of the people, with a special focus on nonverbal communication methods. According to Žarko Trebješanin’s analysis, this work stands out with its extensive comprehension and systematic inspection of customs, gestures, facial expression, and other means of nonverbal expressions, which are essential components of Serbian cultural identity.
Trojanović observes folk customs and daily life practices through a prism of their psychophysical characteristics, diligently dissecting how these patterns manifest through physical behavior, gestures, and other forms of nonverbal expression. His study transcends the mundane examination of physical reactions, considering both emotional and mental states expressed without uttering a word, thus providing a thorough insight into the soul of the people in the way it manifests itself in everyday life.
In his interpretation, Trebješanin emphasizes that Trojanović’s work is based on the belief that Serbian people, conditioned by their historical background and social circumstance, use nonverbal communication as the primary means of expressing emotions, thoughts, and attitudes, as words were often insufficient or unattainable. Trojanović strives to reconstruct the origin of these expressions through generations, relying on the rich ethnographic collection, folk heritage, and the analysis of human conduct in different social contexts.
According to Trebješanin’s interpretation, the central question that arises refers to the profound connection of the Serbian people with their traditional values and cultural norms. Over the centuries, this has shaped specific psychological profiles, perceptible in distinct forms of nonverbal discourse. In light of this, Trojanović also contemplates the challenges of modern society, in which the dominance of verbal discourse steadily suppresses these traditional nonverbal patterns.
By observing Trojanović’s work, a complex dynamic is discovered between Serbian people and their psychophysical expression. It exceeds the purely physical dimension, as it is ingrained in the cultural, historical, and social context. This work poses essential questions on the preservation and transmission of these specific means of communication in contemporary society, recognizing them as basic elements of the collective identity and cultural heritage.
Serbian Folk Medicine
One of the most gripping areas of Trojanović’s work was his research into folk medicine. In his offprint ‘Sharonjanje[3] among Serbs: New Details’ (1922), he describes folk medicine. ‘Even people know about certain surgical procedures, often immensely difficult, like setting dislocated joints, realigning broken bones, or, in the earlier times, in Montenegro, they even knew about grinding stones in the urinary bladder’ (Trojanović, 1922). He studied bygone medical methods, such as trepanning (sharonjanje) – a surgical procedure on the skull used to treat various diseases and injuries, but also for spiritual and occult purposes in some cultures. The surgical instrument for drilling skull bones was called a trepan instrument or trepan drill. Sharonjanje was predominately practiced on the wounded, but there are records of sharonjanje being administered on people against headaches or for treating the ‘mentally ill.’ After surgery, the patient could never eat pork again.
Sima Trojanović researched different Serbian folk customs. One of the cruelest was lapot[4] – the act of senicide, that is, the killing of the elderly when they became a burden to the family. In his work ‘Sharonjanje among Serbs: New Details’ (1922), Trojanović also scrutinized the customs in eastern Serbia, especially in the Zaječar region, where some ethnographers, such as Tihomir R.Đorđević, wrote legends about lapot among Timok Romanians. As stated in those stories, the elderly were killed with blows with an axe or a pole; they were beaten to death, stoned in front of the whole village, and on occasion a loaf of bread was placed on their heads to symbolically indicate that nature took their lives, and not people. Although such tales are deeply rooted in folklore, Trojanović critically observed these tales, investigating whether lapot was truly conducted or was it simply a mythological motif that symbolizes fear of old age and helplessness. In his book Lapot and Malediction of Serbs, a legend was recorded of a grandson hiding his grandfather in order to save him. Later, the grandfather saved the grandson’s life with wise advice. Having told the duke how he had managed in the battle by following his grandfather’s astute advice, the shrewdness of the old man was recognized, and from that moment on, it was forbidden to kill the elderly (Trojanović, 1898).
Apart from lapot, there were other customs like prokletije[5] (malediction) that had the purpose of regulating social relations. While lapot was presented as a cruel act of eradicating the family burden, prokletije was a social mechanism for punishing and maintaining order in the community. People called the cone-shaped piles of stones, usually up to two meters high and around five in diameter, which could be seen in Svrljig, prokletije. Moreover, people gathered there to curse others. Curses had great power among the Serbs and were considered to have real consequences. Prokletije could be individual (aimed at one person) or collective (when a whole village or a family was affected).
[1] Tepeluk – special small women’s cap made of red choja in the shape of a calotte, decorated with pearls strung in the form of a cup https://www.facebook.com/EtnografskiMuzejBeograd.EthnographicMuseumBelgrade/posts/danas-vam-predstavljamo-jedan-biserni-tepeluk-sa-kraja-19-po%C4%8Detka-20-veka-iz-beo/10158639490447718/
[2] Bareš – a band often made out of velvet or silk, decorated with pearls https://jezikoslovac.com/word/wejd?utm_source=chatgpt.com
[3] Sharonjanje – Traditional Serbian folk healing practice
[4] Lapot- a specific practice of abandoning or leaving elderly people to die, a custom that was historically observed in some rural parts of Serbia and other regions of the Balkans
[5] Prokletije – curses, malediction